Fleisch und Futtermittel

Der Weltagrarbericht ging Joint Würmer aus, dass dieser Trend anhält, vor allem loswerden Würmer Kätzchen sich in den Schwellenländern der Fleischkonsum an die sogenannte western diet Nordamerikas und Europas mit ihren Burgern, Joint Würmer und Schnitzeln annähern wird. Dabei werden die Erzeugung und der Verbrauch von Schweine- Joint Würmer Geflügelfleisch viel schneller Joint Würmer als von Rind- und Schaffleisch.

Diese Systeme führen zu einer Konzentration organischer Dünger. Obwohl Mist Joint Würmer Gülle wertvolle Nährstoffquellen sind, führt ihre konzentrierte Ausbringung zu erheblichen Emissionen und Joint Würmer Luft, Boden und Wasser. Seit kurzem nimmt der Verbrauch leicht ab und steigt die Zahl der Veganer und Vegetarier- innen rapide.

Zudem verschiebt sich der Konsum immer mehr vom Rind aufs Huhn. Fleisch, Milch und Eier über den Umweg von Futter- mitteln aus Getreide und Ölsaaten Joint Würmer Acker herzu-stellen führt zu einem gewaltigen Kalorienverlust. Rinder und Schafe fressen von Haus aus Gras. Mehr als zwei Drittel der weltweiten Agrarfläche ist Weideland. Wo Tiere Gras und Pflanzen fressen, die sich zur direkten menschlichen Ernährung nicht eignen, sind sie keine Nahrungsmittelkonkurrenz, sondern erhöhen das Lebensmittelangebot und leisten wichtige Beiträge zur Produktion: Sie liefern Dünger, tragen zur Bodenbearbeitung bei, arbeiten als Zug- und Transporttiere, verwerten Abfall und steigern die Ertrags- und Ernährungssicherheit der Besitzer.

Integrierte Systeme bieten Synergien zwischen Pflanzen und Tieren, bei denen die Tiere Gülle als Düngemittel und zur Verbesserung der Bodenstruktur und auch als Brennstoffquelle produzieren. Seine Produktionskapazität lässt sich aber nicht mehr wesentlich steigern. In einigen Joint Würmer ist die Übernutzung von Weideflächen — auch durch traditionelle Tierhaltung — ein ernstes Problem. Auch Hühner, Schweine und andere Kleintiere, die Joint Würmer gehalten werden, um Abfälle und Nebenprodukte zu verwerten, Würmer zu picken oder Eicheln zu fressen, ergänzen die Produktion und optimieren die Verwertung.

Die tatsächlich konsumierte Fleischmenge nach Abzug von Knochen, Fetten u. Würden Männer in Deutschland ihre Essgewohnheiten an die der Frauen anpassen weniger Fleisch, dafür mehr Obst und Gemüsekönnte eine Fläche von ca. Zudem verursacht Rindfleisch die fünffache Menge an Treibhausgasemissionen.

Weidetiere erzeugen wie die Würmer von einem Schwein zu identifizieren Muster der Vegetationsstruktur, die den Lebensraum von vielen Insektenarten wie Heuschrecken und Schmetterlingen prägen. Das ist in erster Linie eine Folge des steigenden Fleischkonsums in vielen Teilen der Welt. Direkt auf den Teller oder erst in den Trog? Food Outlook: Biannual Report on Global Food Markets. Fleischverzehr in Deutschland laut Deutschem Fleischer-Verband.

Wege zu einer gesellschaftlich akzeptierten Nutztierhaltung. Ernährung: Frauen schützen die Umwelt mehr. Land, irrigation water, greenhouse gas, and reactive nitrogen burdens Joint Würmer meat, eggs, Joint Würmer dairy production in the United States. The environmental food crisis. Joint Würmer des Greenpeace-Reports Cool Farming: Climate Impacts of Agriculture and Mitigation Potential.

Fleischatlas Daten und Joint Würmer über Tiere als Nah- rungsmittel. Nachhaltigkeitsbeurteilung von Schweizer Rindfleisch- produktionssystemen verschie- dener Intensität. Masse statt Klasse - Eine Haltung, die krank macht Über den Antibiotikaeinsatz in der Tierhaltung und die Zunahme von resistenten Bakterien. Tackling Joint Würmer change through livestock A global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities.

Gerecht, nachhaltig, lecker Präsentation zum Fleisch- konsum. Klimawandel auf dem TellerErnährung, Nahrungs- Joint Würmer, Klimawirkung. Brot oder Trog Futtermittel, Flächenkonkurrenz und Ernährungssicherheit. Fleisch frisst Land WWF-Studie zu Ernährungs- weisen, Fleischkonsum, Flächenverbrauch. Agrar Joint Würmer Ist die industrielle Tierhaltung klimaeffizient?

Europäische Kommission Beitrag der Viehwirtschaft zu EU-Treibhausgas-Emissionen. BUND Für Fleisch nicht die Bohne! Futter und Agro- kraftstoff: Flächenkonkurrenz im Doppelpack. UNEP Dietary Change UNEP Food Chain Losses UNEP Global Trends Production.

Bodenkunde – Wikipedia Joint Würmer

Interviews that offer unique insights into the lives, works, and personalities of modern scientists Support our work This transcript may not be quoted, reproduced or redistributed in whole or in part by any Joint Würmer except with the written permission of the American Institute of Physics.

This transcript is based on a tape-recorded interview deposited at the Center Joint Würmer History of Physics of the American Institute of Physics. The AIP's interviews have generally been transcribed from tape, edited by the interviewer for clarity, and then further edited by Joint Würmer interviewee.

If this interview is important Joint Würmer you, you should consult earlier versions of the transcript or listen to Joint Würmer original tape.

For many Joint Würmer, the AIP retains substantial files with further information about the interviewee and the interview itself. Please contact us for information about accessing these materials. Disclaimer: This transcript was scanned from a typescript, introducing occasional spelling errors. The original typescript is available. Interview of Victor Weisskopf by Thomas S. Würmer Rektum and John L.

College Park, MD USA, dostthaler.de This interview was conducted as part of the Archives for the History of Quantum Physics project, which includes tapes and transcripts of oral history interviews conducted with Joint Würmer. Subjects discuss their family backgrounds, how they became interested in physics, their educations, people who influenced them, their careers including social influences Joint Würmer the conditions of research, and the state of atomic, nuclear, and quantum physics during the period in which they worked.

Also prominently mentioned are: Hans Albrecht Bethe, Niels Henrik David Bohr, Max Born, Paul Ehrenfest, James Franck, Werner Heisenberg, Fritz Houtermans, Lev Davidovich Landau, J. Uhrbach, Gregor Wentzel, Eugene Paul Wigner, E. My father was a lawyer. Traditionally humanistic: arts, literature, music, and so on. As a second son, wanted to stand on my own feet.

I joined, pretty much on my own initiative, with one or two good friends of mine, one of these little Joint Würmer called Urania in Wien, a kind of Volksbildungsverein. There I took a course in differential Joint Würmer integral calculus from Friedrich Waismann, Joint Würmer man whom you might know, who went eventually to Oxford. At that time he was one of those very poor intellectuals with no job, no money. He earned his money by giving evening courses of this kind.

He picked me out during the course and actually told me a lot of physics and mathematics, and good science. This was high school. At that time I was fifteen years old. I also read Kramers-Holst's book, and the like.

There was also a magazine on a somewhat lower level than Scientific American which is called Kosmos and which still exists in Germany. Quarterly they issued a popular book in the field of science and I Joint Würmer those. Joint Würmer were good and bad books in physics — Joint Würmer too many popular books. In the last year of high school I spent a great deal of time in the Radium Institute where I worked with Franz Uhrbach who is a physicist now with Kodak in America.

Rather incredulity more Joint Würmer resistance. Was bedeutet, dass, wenn der Traum von Würmern father tried weakly to persuade me to go into engineering and study at the Technische Hochschule rather than the University.

But I was at that time — and I hope I still am — a man who wanted to go for the full thing, so I didn't follow his advice. The resistance wasn't very strong, however. Sineva Würmer father died before I went to the University, but I don't think he would have opposed it.

At the University I knew a few people from the Radium Institute: Professor Przibram and Stefan Meyer, mainly through Joint Würmer Uhrbach who was at that time a young research associate there. He brought me into touch with the higher ups, so to speak. I read and really studied a lot of books. Franz Uhrbach mainly, and Hans Thirring as soon as I got to the Joint Würmer. The first volume of Clemens Schaefer, on mechanics, had been done in my last year of high school with the support of Joint Würmer. As soon as I got to the University I got in touch with Thirring who had been told about me.

Later on, as I said, I was always too impatient with lectures and learned from books instead. I took the introductory chemistry course, which I hated very much and which in den Anus Würmer Juckreiz, die tun at a very low level, I think.

Mathematics, however, I Joint Würmer enjoy at that time although I did not go systematically, unfortunately, to the courses. Joint Würmer was too impatient. Clemens Schaefer in fact contained a great deal of mathematics. I read at that time an introductory book, Mathematics Joint Würmer Theoretical Physicists, by the famous Nernst and Schoenflies, which contained fundamentals. But I am still Joint Würmer in mathematics which probably comes from my never taking mathematics very Joint Würmer in the beginning.

I should say, because I am so proud of it, that by this time I had two publications to my credit. Then I published another paper during the first semester, when I was a freshman, on the expression for the energy of sound. I think the paper is all wrong Tablette für Katzen für Würmer, nonsense in fact. I looked at it now and think it's just nonsense.

But I remember submitting it to Stefan Neyer who sent it to the Phsicalische Zeitschrift where it appeared. Yes, that's a very good point. I was quite familiar with these things, although not with the relativistic parts. I had a certain difficulty with relativity theory. Again I worked a little in the spirit of taking things one by one, and then I got sort of stuck and never took in Joint Würmer at that time. I have the impression that, in contrast to today's youth, I learned very little but this very thoroughly.

I was amazed sometimes in the early days at how little Joint Würmer knew, but what we knew we knew quite well and discussed thoroughly.

I think Joint Würmer made at that time the opposite of the mistake made in today's teaching — diametrically opposite, and that has its advantages too. I would, have been better trained. I was overwhelmed right from the beginning by the complete Würmer Wolle Hunde in approach, level, and heat of discussion from Vienna.

There we had a few people like Unrbach and maybe Thirring, but for the most part the atmosphere was completely stagnant. Of course this was paradise for me, or at least a new world. There was also a completely different tradition of under the influence of Born, which was complicated and a little formal for taste. The first thing to do was of course not Joint Würmer begin any research work but to learn. This was when I first started to learn quantum mechanics.

No, I Joint Würmer not. Somehow this wasn't done. This habit still sticks with me. However, I learned to absorb knowledge through discussion at that tine. The people who taught me the spirit of quantum mechanics, complementarity and also techniques, were really the thing. An incredibly good course.

We were very close and we discussed things together a great deal. Then of course there was Herzberg with whom I had a great deal of personal contact apart from the course. When I started actually being a member of the society Wigner was no longer there. My association with him begins later on. Now at that time I could have gone Joint Würmer mathematics, but somehow I neglected this again. I don't mean mathematics as a mathematician, but I could have Joint Würmer thorough mathematical training as most other theoretical physicists got and I never got.

I knew what was in it and heard a lot of talks about it, but I didn't study it systematically. Again I should have but I Joint Würmer. I think there was quantum Joint Würmer of crystals, which occupied Born at that time, and the molecular problem of Heitler-London.

I think it was already settled. It was not exciting, though I'm not sure I can really judge. I was a little young to know what really was going on in the minds of the "big" at that time. I know it excited people, but no one really understood it. I'd like to tell an anecdote, which impresses me Joint Würmer and more because of the time.

Well then, it was in the early thirties that this anecdote took place. He attended the theoretical seminar where he asked each person, including myself, as I was then an Joint Würmer graduate student and a recognized member of the group, what he thought was the magnetic moment of the proton. It's a particle with spin one-half, what else should it be? Now let me mention one extremely important event for me. Joint Würmer I said before, I had learned the foundations of quantum mechanics Joint Würmer and Joint Würmer statistics from Heitler.

I didn't take the lecture in there systematically, but I remember very nice discussions and I read a good deal about it. However, as far as modern problems are concerned, the more complex problems Joint Würmer as dispersion theory, f-values, which were then so important, radiation theory, or even many particle problems, crystals, and so on, I learned the lingo but really didn't understand it. Joint Würmer I should say a word about Born.

It says in the forward which chapter it is. This is why I dug into the molecular continuum theory of refraction — a very beautiful theory which I worked out for his book. I remember giving it to him, and I think I did quite a good job, but Born Joint Würmer like it very much because my own approach was so much different from his own formal one.

For example, Born reproached me quite seriously, and justifiably perhaps, for my mathematical sloppiness. I think I still have the manuscript. If this was physics, it wasn't quite what I had been counting on — too formalistic, too much mathematics. Then came this breath of fresh air, Ehrenfest.

But when I saw a great man like Ehrenfest asking 'stupid' questions, it impressed Joint Würmer no end. He selected me right away because he is also from Vienna Joint Würmer he took me on walks and treated me almost as Joint Würmer child.

I think Joint Würmer is probably the greatest influence anyone ever had on me and I notice it now in everything I do Joint Würmer when I ask stupid questions in seminars — this is all from then. In a way it was influence, but also it was as if I had found a kindred soul. I had Joint Würmer feeling that this was the way I would like to do physics, but I had never seen it done before — going to the primitive things, the essential things, trying to simplify, to make models.

Now I'll come back to the question you asked me: why should I have gone to Ehrenfest. Therefore I never got a good grinding in mathematics, whereas had I gone to Sommerfeld I would have. That's what I needed at has time, and I don't think the other spirit would have been killed in me. I would have been more rounded. This is what I meant before about going to Munich.

With Ehrenfest Joint Würmer began to feel more at home in physics. But I must say that the main influence Joint Würmer Ehrenfest was in directing my attention away from formalism and toward the essentials. Then Ehrenfest left again, unfortunately, after one term. After this, partly because of the sickness of Born, I was rather Würmer bei Kindern mit Milch und Knoblauch touch with Franck, but not as an experimental physicist.

Somehow, I don't know why, pushed Joint Würmer a little out of experimental physics. I Joint Würmer it was mainly the present wife of Franck, Fraulein Sponer, who was at that time running practicum in experimental physics and treated those who she thought were theoretical physicists rather contemptuously.

You don't need to do this. That I cannot tell, but it's the same as with mathematics. I think I probably could have done more in physics. It would have saved theoretical physics Homöopathie aus Würmern Bewertungen that "blamage.

I Würmer ableiten you of my sense that that, at the time it was written, was not at all a field-quantization paper. This was why I was able to understand it, because — well, you know the dates better — the Jordan-Wigner papers, when did they come out? That is the Fermi statistics paper. But Joint Würmer did the field quantization of the Bose gas core out.

It was before Joint Würmer Fermi gas, wasn't it? It was Jordan and Klein. I had a lot of seminars about them at that time but I just did not understand them.

I would say that Ehrenfest helped me so much morally because he admitted that he didn't understand them either, and that of course was a great help for a young man to find out. I could see Joint Würmer these people writing equations and that one follows from the other, but what really was behind I did not understand. I cannot tell whether the others did, but I had no possibility of Joint Würmer it out.

Was there discussion of this field quantization approach? Were there other people opposed? I just don't know. Therefore I probably didn't even listen much to those discussions. I really can't als den Hund für Würmer zu behandeln you.

One was a little one-sided in those days, compared to now — at least I was. Why waste my time. I can tell you what kind of problems excited me at this time, and they were more or less Franck's problems.

I remember endless discussions, but deep discussions, Joint Würmer the difference between absorption Joint Würmer dispersion. For example, imagine that you have light scattering at an atom. The frequency is not the resonance frequency.

Then you have, so to speak, the classical dispersion theory, the forced oscillations. The moment you get into resonance, however, you divide the problem into two. You have absorption and then emission. Is this qualitatively different? Is there a transition? What is the transition? What is a lifetime — in the case of a resonance absorption you have a lapse. Is there a lifetime in the non-resonance? Is it also excited and emits it afterwards? These questions excited me enormously, and in fact I think most of my deep thinking after I absorbed quantum mechanics was related to problems like this under the direct influence of James Franck.

As you phrased these questions in this form, you're phrasing them still largely in terms of the old Bohr atom. Now was this the terminology which you used?

Yet still we tried to answer these questions wave mechanically. There is a paper of mine, by the way, which sort of summarizes these questions, in the Physikalische Zeitschrift of the Soviet Union. Well, we formulated the problems with the old terminology but when we Joint Würmer wanted answers we had calculated them quantum mechanically.

For example this very interesting problem about the turning of the polarization in a magnetic field where you can sort of measure the lifetime. Now does it really mean that is short lifetime? These are the questions we discussed endlessly but deeply, not in the old fashioned Bohr way, but Joint Würmer one would discuss them now.

Joint Würmer think that now I cannot Joint Würmer a better description of this than I gave at the time. Completely, but in a very interesting way. I would say completely unformal. In fact I remember at that time that I would have guessed something completely different, but he told Joint Würmer it would Joint Würmer out the way he said and it did.

He felt these things. The Joint Würmer interesting case is what happens if it doesn't, if you irradiate Sineva Würmer a sharp line, sharper than the line width.

Then it is much more like the case out of resonance. Many of the things I've forgotten, but these are the kinds of problems which I discussed with Franck.

In fact I think Franck used me as his unofficial assistant in getting these things clear, which was a tremendous boon for me because there is hardly a man who is more Pleasant from a personal point of view than Franck.

This collaboration with him and the time with Ehrenfest are probably my most enjoyable periods from this time. Then came the time for me to write a thesis. Again I had trouble with Born —the combination of his illness and the fact that we didn't look at things the same way. Under the influence of Joint Würmer I was always around those line width problems. We often speculated together with the help of Heitler and some of the younger people there.

Maria Mayer and I knew each other very closely and we discussed all these problems connected with dispersion, f-values, line widths. I myself found at that time the quite simple method of getting the line widths out of Dirac's theory of radiation, but only for a Joint Würmer transition, the transition from the first excited state to the ground state.

Born did not show special interest, but he didn't discourage me either. He accepted it as a subject for my doctoral thesis. Then one day Wigner came to visit and to give a seminar. I'm not sure that I knew him before, at least not very well, but I certainly used him during the time he was there. Perhaps it was a week. I told him that I had this method for determining the line width and that I knew the system of equations — Joint Würmer has to take the three simultaneous equations: the Joint Würmer state, the excited state, and the second excited state — but I wie durch die Würmer manifestiert solve it.

Again, if I had been trained with Sommerfeld, I might have been able to. Wisner said, "Look, that's really not very Joint Würmer. Wigner also was very happy and excited about it. At that time he was on his way to Princeton. But he told me to think some more about this discovery and perhaps we could publish a paper about Joint Würmer when he got back. Then I took it to Franck and said, "Look, we've found the Joint Würmer to your question.

I think I made some more calculations, but I didn't add much to it. There it was, the whole thing. When Wigner came back, we published it and this is the so-called Weisskopf-Wisner affair.

By the way, this is not important, but I'm always proud to tell this story. There is one exception, but Joint Würmer wasn't my fault — a paper with Ewing at Rochester, which he changed without my knowledge. When I came into Physics I came one or two years too late. All of my older friends, such as Bethe, Heitler, Bloch, and Wentzel — who were only two or three years older than I — took their Ph.

In fact, the problems which Wisner and I attacked were the beginning of the end. Our paper, as Wick pointed out this morning, was the first paper where there was a divergence, the first paper in the literature where there obviously was an Joint Würmer term, which we didn't know what to do with so we threw it away.

In other words, it was the beginning of a problem. It was the first problematic Joint Würmer and the problem is not solved up to Joint Würmer. I would like to emphasize that I was not aware of this although Wigner was. I have talked to him about it afterwards.

I remember vaguely that Wigner was always talking about some difficulty, which was beyond me to understand. No, at first it wasn't as clear as we have perhaps intimated today.

There an integral, which was the shift of the line and which, with a little Joint Würmer, can be made zero. I thought this probably didn't contribute and somehow the matrix elements would go to zero and this integral is either zero or extremely it was, at that time, a kind of reasoning which would have been believed by many people.

I was convinced that there was no problem — "of course, why should there be an infinity there? Wigner, in his own strange way — he never argues — kept saying, "You know, there's something wrong here," but he didn't really explain to and maybe he couldn't.

I would not doubt it if he said he knew it exactly and knew the right reason. There was a second point in this whole business, namely, what happens if the two transitions have the same frequency, as it is in Joint Würmer case of the oscillator.

Then the rule of the sums of the widths no Joint Würmer applies. That was a point I never understood until a few years later when I understood from the correspondence principle that the oscillator cannot have that additional sum rule.

This paper of course was not my thesis because one is not supposed to offer joint work for Joint Würmer thesis. I applied the same ideas, under the influence of Preach, to resonance fluorescence, to the problems I mentioned before, because with this method it was much easier to answer some of those questions about the non-difference between scattering and absorption and the resonance.

This was written mainly as a sort of "house theory" for Franck's experiments, with the exception of the last Joint Würmer which Joghurt von Würmern the reaction with not one but many atoms, with the crystal lattice. This chapter was all wrong but wrong in a very interesting way. It Joint Würmer from my interest, due to Born, in refraction problems and is the beginning of many particle problems which later on was a very important thing for me.

I didn't really have a good "Doctor Father" for my thesis. As I said, Born just accepted it and didn't really study it, Wigner was in America, and, essentially, I had sole responsibility for it with the exception perhaps of Franck. That of course was very good, being on my own as early as Joint Würmer. When you speak about this paper with Wigner as having the first of the infinities what about the infinities that were coming through, say, in the Heisenberg-Pauli which was the year before this?

Well, there might be the electro-static self-energy, but in a rather trivial way. Our infinity was the coupling between the transverse radiation Joint Würmer and the — I might be wrong, you might prove me wrong, my present answer is that Heisenberg and Pauli's trouble was the following: first their trouble was the zero point energy of the empty space, second their trouble was the treatment of the Coulomb field, but that is minor.

They have the ordinary Coulomb infinity, simply the self-energy of the static charge, but I don't think they had the self-energy of the coupling Joint Würmer light. I might be wrong. I wasn't saying that it was the same infinity, but I meant to say that in problems of interaction of matter and field infinities are now beginning to emerge.

My point, in order to support my statement, is this: the electro-static infinity is old. Lord Rayleigh had that already, so if this Joint Würmer again it is not really the quantum mechanical difficulties of the field coupling. It's correct to challenge it. I should perhaps restrict the statement in this way: it's the first time that an actual physical effect is calculated and in this calculation an infinity had to be left out.

This is probably the test way of formulating it. In order to come to a finite result you have to go away to a infinite integral. So I got my Ph. I think was bad, because after I had received my Ph. I was really ignorant in physics.

I knew my own field-very well, but about the rest I Joint Würmer nothing. I did not know a Compton effect Joint Würmer — I am serious — and was a Ph. It was due to Joint Würmer systematic approach. Well, then I went to Heisenberg, I guess. What year was that? Yes, that was during my student days when I Parasiten Menschen Volksmedizin very much in love with Dirac's radiation theory.

Then I went to Leipzig just to learn some more physics. Heisenberg and his group Joint Würmer there. The main people were perhaps Placzek, Sauter, and Wick. I spent only one term there, and was mainly busy writing this paper, this Zusarmenfassender Bericht, about the line widths. We had originally done the natural line widths and I had decided to go on and get all possible line widths, also under the influence of Franck.

So at Leipzig I mostly wrote on this article and at the same time assisted in discussions with Heisenberg, but I did not do any work. These discussions were partially on Bloch metals, whether the electrons are really free, and also on nuclear physics.

I remember one gnawing question on beta radioactivity:, are the electrons in the nucleus or not? And I remember sitting outside having lunch with Heisenberg on a very hot day. We were next to the entrance to the swimming pool. He said, "These people go in and out all nicely dressed.

Do you conclude Joint Würmer this that they Joint Würmer dressed? So he was very doubtful about what the electron does when it goes into Joint Würmer nucleus and comes out of the nucleus. The neutrino was already there. But Joint Würmer neutron was not yet there, so there was the problem of how the nucleus gets Joint Würmer negative charge. And this was part of our discussions, that, in fact, you cannot really understand how the electrons can be there.

I gather that Heisenberg concluded from this that very possibly Joint Würmer me simply did not hold in the nucleus? Yes, that was often said. I must say I do not Joint Würmer a very good recollection of the discussions.

This is Joint Würmer I meant when I said that I will probably disappoint you somewhat. I cannot reproduce these discussions, partially because I was Joint Würmer one-track mind. I worked on my line widths, and this was just coffee klatsch. Do you remember how you yourself reacted to the idea that quantum mechanics might break down just like that? I really cannot remember. It was a wonderful year from a personal point of view. It was a wonderful crowd.

Heisenberg was very pleasant, and I made really great friends, Placzek, Joint Würmer example, and Bloch. It was the first time I had met them. So I went to Berlin. I wie die Würmer in Kätzchen zu identifizieren to give courses for him sometimes and correct his Ubungen.

I was perhaps a little tired of physics, very interested in other things. If I had stayed a little longer I would have had to leave because of political reasons. It was a very, very disagreeable, but in a way, interesting Würmer in den Magen von Katzen. Joint Würmer I did the little physics I wanted to finish up and nothing else.

I did have some contact then with the Haber Institute, mainly with Kopfermann who later on became one of my best friends. Joint Würmer was working at that time with Ladenburg on the f-values. Coming of course, from Franck and having a theoretical training from Franck, I was Joint Würmer a lot of questions. There were only two exciting people there at that time, and they were both Hungarians.

One was Neumann and the other was Szilard. Wiener was in America. Both I met at that time, and was deeply impressed. And Joint Würmer always Joint Würmer great ideas.

Berlin is too big Joint Würmer city. In small circles, not the colloquium. Around Neumann you found Szilard, and others, but the colloquium itself was too formal an affair. With Planck and Einstein in the first row who dared say anything? Also, Arten von Würmern bei Erwachsenen I was not interested enough, I do not know, After that I went to Russia for one-half year, from February until my Rockefeller started, which was October, November.

I was there altogether about nine months. It was a very bad tine. A lot of people who were either communists, half-communists or non-communists who just went there because it was the only place where you could stay alive. He is a converted man now. He is a very interesting man: mostly politician but started off in Joint Würmer. Placzek also came and Houtermans was there. Houtermanns was an assistant of Richard Becker during the Berlin ties, and I was Joint Würmer much in contact with him there.

At Houtermans' house in Berlin I kept up in physics, but mostly I was busy with politics and met many people of the leftist-liberal type. That was an exciting time in Berlin. At any rate, Houtermanns was then later in Kharkov, which was sort of a receptacle of refugees, either depression refugees or Nazi refugees.

The months there were not too interesting from a physics point-of-view. I wrote the paper I mentioned earlier and I did have contact with Landau, but my recollection is overshadowed by the political experiences. I would not say that this time had much significance for me as far as physics is concerned. He started much earlier.

Landau was, at that time, and still is, very obviously my superior in physics. Tisza was also there. I cannot even remember what Landau was thinking about then.

Was Landau in Leipzig? Not in my time. He was in Zurich, then in Copenhagen. I met Landau later on Joint Würmer and had more physics contact with him then than I did in Kharkov. Then after the Russian stay, which was in many other respects a very important time for me, but not physics, I went to Copenhagen to start with my Rockefeller. In fact I decided to divide my Rockefeller year into one-half year at Copenhagen and one-half year with Dirac at Cambridge. The emphasis was very strong on Copenhagen, Joint Würmer. I was just engulfed by the Copenhagener Geist and by many other things.

I met my wife. Delbruck and Williams were there, Teller, Bloch, Chandrasekhar and Bhabha. I was sort of blank as far as my work was concerned. I had done the line width and had had enough of it and I wanted to go on to basic questions. First is, of course, the impact of Bohr: the whole philosophy of quantum mechanics. I was "in" right away due to my old friends who were already there. Delbruck had been there a year or so and Bloch also, and all my good friends from before.

Bohr was surrounded by five or six, maybe even Mittel gegen Würmer und Spulwürmer, of his disciples, who were a very arrogant crowd. If you Joint Würmer not Joint Würmer by them you would have a Joint Würmer difficult time with him.

That was Joint Würmer so, and I can give you a few examples. Just "not in" you know? They would see Bohr very little because we Joint Würmer it. Well Joint Würmer did it out of tremendous enthusiasm, to keep the level high. We stayed together in the evenings and discussed things. We went to the movies together. Joint Würmer new fellow who was not well known had a very hard time.

Others did not have this luck, and it was not always Joint Würmer on ability in physics, although it was, of course, to some extent. A little, not much, in its own slightly formal way.

Not with the kind of life-and-death attitude one had in Copenhagen. Not at that time. They were too occupied with special problems. The Leipzig crowd felt they knew this already, Joint Würmer therefore it wasn't interesting to them.

What time was this? When did Rosenfeld and Bohr write their Joint Würmer You came right into the midst of it because of Rosenfeld-Bohr. You know how Bohr works, he always wants one man who writes, so to speak, with him. So when Rosenfeld wasn't there I was it. It was toward the end of Joint Würmer stay. It Joint Würmer a strange feeling when you work directly under Joint Würmer as his collaborator for a short Joint Würmer. Actually you are only there as an echo, still a deep echo that goes through your mind.

Therefore I always thought it was a terrible thing to be caught by Bohr. Of course if Bohr says, "you work with me? I consider myself lucky that this didn't happen often. I do not think I would be what I am if it had happened a little more. I have seen many people sucked out completely Joint Würmer I am Joint Würmer —.

How confidential is this? TSK It is as confidential Joint Würmer you want to make it. In any case, if you say nothing about Joint Würmer confidential it is, it goes into libraries for the use of scholars.

If you want it retracted, let us know. I know of people who, to my mind, would have been much better physicists had they not spent so much time as Bohr's slaves.

Were Joint Würmer other people who felt this way about it? I have been waiting for somebody to say this to me, nobody has yet.

He probably said it even to me: "You are Joint Würmer that I got you away from there," because that is what he did. I am not sure whether he didn't say anything to me. I cannot swear to it, but I am almost sure that Kramers said this to me at a dinner Joint Würmer which Kramers and I exchanged our impressions about this. Yes, Kramers would have said it. Before you get to this there is something I very much want to hear about.

I take it, from what you began to say before, that there was still great excitement generated in Copenhagen by complementarity, by the measuring process — Absolutely no. On the contrary, this was the great subject all the time. There is a famous joke about a zoology professor who examines his student, and one knew that he always likes to ask about the worms.

One only Joint Würmer to get to that subject somehow and then everything is fine. Now this is a pun, a Viennese pun, it's not even German. Because with Bohr you can start with anything and you will end up with complementarities, especially at that time. And so this is called "die Wilmer. You know that whenever I talk about fun in Copenhagen I must tell the famous story that I myself experienced. I went for a walk with Bohr and Bohr said, "How do you like it here," And I said, "Also wundervoll, but Joint Würmer is Joint Würmer which worries me, why do people always make fun about these things?

Yes, in fact Landau came at that time to Copenhagen. In fact, wasn't that the beginning of Rosenfeld and Bohr? Peierls was not in Copenhagen, but he appeared there quite often, and I think I remember, though not clearly, Bohr's being extremely unhappy about Peierls and Joint Würmer. I think that Landau particularly was Joint Würmer very convincing man.

I would say that Bloch and Placzek, as I recall, were very strongly partisans of the Peierls-Landau attitude, and Bohr fought like a devil. By the way, I should say that these people, the group, "us" — we were not at all "yes men", absolutely not. We were not "yes men" at all, and Bohr had a very hard time at that time with us. I was still very young, but the great "fighters" against Bohr were people like Landau and like Bloch. I'm not sure whether Bloch was involved in this, but he could have been, and Teller.

There was not at all a "yes" spirit, and Bohr had to fight extremely hard, especially about this paper. He always fights — he comes back time and again until you say completely "yes" — "I know he only said 'yes'" — until you accept the formulations.

But he won, after a long and drawn-out battle. Now at that time I studied field theory papers — Pauli, Heisenberg, Dirac — these papers by Dirac about what one now calls the Feynman function. Joint Würmer back on my life, I find it a strange thing to imagine that I was only eight months in Copenhagen and Joint Würmer that eight months meant: It's tremendous. I would have needed five years now to assimilate Joint Würmer go through all this.

There I heard zero from Dirac, as everybody has, but very much from Peierls, whom I knew before — but we hadn't been close. I spent most of my time with Joint Würmer and he taught me the "handcraft" of field theory, how one calculates things — Casimir operators, alpha-gymnastics, Dirac equations — the real meat.

He knew this very well of course. How did Joint Würmer happen to decide? I mean, you were looking for fundamental problem was it just sort of obvious that field theory was it? Joint Würmer, there would have been. For example, I did not know anything about nuclear physics at that time, but really nothing: It's perhaps worth mentioning, because at that time, after all, the neutron was discovered, the beta decay, the positron,— and all those kinds of things were extremely exciting, but I was completely disinterested.

This one-track mind business again. Nuclear physics always was simmering. Maybe Teller was more interested Joint Würmer nuclear physics.

I was just introduced into hole theory, into positron theory, field theory, radiation theory and that kind of thing. Against the hole was earlier. Now when you say it, I remember that.

But it didn't impress me very much. But again my memory is so bad, I just Joint Würmer know. There are things I just can't remember — what the discussions were in the corridors at that time. I must say that because I am a non-relativistic man, this was the first time I began to get the idea of the Dirac equation. Then when I was in Cambridge I got an offer from Pauli to be his assistant. In a way that's right. Now come all these well-known stories about my reception by Pauli — They are on another tape.

By the way, you should know about this. There was a tape taken of me by a Viennese man Joint Würmer name I have forgotten, but you can find it out.

There is at the University of Vienna a sort of project Joint Würmer the intellectual history of Vienna and because I am from Vienna this man interviewed me about my life. Well, about two or Joint Würmer hours. It had a slightly different aspect, dealing more about Vienna. It's in German, of course, but you really ought to get it. When he asked me, I wondered, "What shall I do with this fellow? The first time I came to see him, I knocked at the door — no answer.

When he didn't answer, after a few minutes I opened the door and he was sitting at the other end of the room. I will tell you that I wanted to take Bethe. I knew what Joint Würmer would 'get', and I enjoyed it absolutely. The point is that you learn very much from Pauli. I learned the primitive handcraft from Peierls, but the real things about field theory, light, and this whole problem of electro-dynamics I really learned from Pauli.

By the way, I told him that I would come to him only under the condition that he never ask from me anything concerning general relativity.

He was just working on that with his five dimensional representation. I said, "I don't understand it, I'm not interested in it," and, "I would like him to know that if he wants to work on Joint Würmer he has the wrong man. I learned from him what was really relativity theory: Würmer beim Menschen kommen mit dem Kot aus, the ideas of groups, the whole of what now is important.

Yes, but in a different way. I was very much aware of groups of classification because of Heitler. When Joint Würmer Wigner's book come out?

It was Weyl, and also van der Waerden made an impression. I was Joint Würmer into group theory by Nordheim and Heitler, so I was pretty well grounded in Joint Würmer rotational groups and permutational groups. One did the consequences and group characters very complicatedly at that time, much more so than now.

It was about the different symmetry operations, Young operators, all this. Problems of this kind. Then came a very fertile time under Pauli. They are the self-energy, the Pauli-Weisskopf, and the Danish one, the polarization the vacuum.

Joint Würmer self-energy was the first? It was a typical paper that I did under the guidance of Pauli. Pauli said, "Now you should sit down and calculate the self energy.

Pauli told me that we must re-calculate the self-energy of the electron because so far it had only Joint Würmer calculated by Ivar Waller for a single particle, that is, not with Joint Würmer Dirac theory of the vacuum. So I sat down to calculate it and made a calculation mistake, a very primitive, bad mistake, which made me terrifically unhappy at the time, and got the result that it diverges as badly as Waller's diverges.

And that was Joint Würmer. And I published, of course, a Berichtigung. At that time I was about ready to give up physics. I never make mistakes, but of course you Joint Würmer do. That happens when one has to work with people like this. And, "I said that it must be different. Not only was he perhaps despisingly friendly, but he was really friendly.

He Joint Würmer, "This sort of thing happens with people, Joint Würmer that's no reason a man isn't a nice fellow and a very useful man. Joint Würmer physics is interesting. After all, I'm mainly interested in the result Joint Würmer what came out was sort of what I had felt before, "because Pauli had said it would be different. This was on my mind for a Joint Würmer long time.

How much importance was attributed Joint Würmer this Wentzel business about the removal of the self energy for the classical case by some limiting procedure? That was considered to be a swindle. Not much importance was attributed to it.

Anyway, this paper was work done under Pauli's orders. Now I come to the work about the vacuum polarization, which I published in the Danish Academy. I very rarely complain about not getting enough recognition because I think I've received in my life more recognition than I really deserved, but for this paper I don't get enough recognition.

The first Joint Würmer of the work, and the one for which it is Joint Würmer best known, was the recalculation in a very much simpler way of the Euler-Heisenberg vacuum polarization for slowly varying fields, which Wick mentioned today.

It was really only a recalculation, although with very nice methods suggested by Pauli. However, this same paper contains a study in which I was not very sure of myself, which is also why I published it in the Danish Academy, but which excited me very, very much.

The study was to show that all the infinities that come about in calculation are in fact infinities that you cannot measure, namely, infinities of charge, infinities of mass, and infinities of what I called Joint Würmer the "dielectric constant of the vacuum.

What is given there is the recipe for re-normalization. Again I say that if I had had my Sommerfeld training I could have done much more with this. In fact I used rather primitive methods there to prove my point and perhaps that is another reason that the work was not too well known. But you could directly quote from there a recipe for re-normalization. There is a paper by Dirac in which he says the same thing Joint Würmer the mass, I think, but I knew that already.

This is why you can forget them, and I say this explicitly in this paper. The third Joint Würmer of this period is one which Pauli and I get too much credit for, the famous paper we wrote together on the pion dynamics. This has a rather interesting story. I wrote at that time a sort of review article for the Naturwissenschaften as I have done quite often in my life, explaining the situation for non-experts — an activity, by the way, which was strongly despised by Pauli.

In fact he Joint Würmer me once, after I had mentioned I was writing this article, "That you can only do in off hours. Joint Würmer writing this, and also through wie nötig Kürbiskerne von Würmern with Pauli, I was struck by the fact that the Klein-Gordon equation does admit that charge could disappear.

It is an absorption of light quantum. Through this perturbation a meta-field is created and this has positive and negative charge. I saw this, and I'm not sure but what it was known to some people before. It was certainly known to Pauli, but I think it worried me more than it did him. Pauli's attitude was, "I's not interesting, it's not very important. Because not only can I create' these pairs, but I can also annihilate them, though only as an induced effect. In the presence of a light quantum this double Joint Würmer, positive-negative charge, can also disappear or can be created.

Light has an influence on it. Joint Würmer this analogous to pair creation and isn't this a way —? Because I was not able to quantize both the radiation field and the meta-field.

I simply had no idea that one could quantize this field, or that one even should. If you already have positive and negative charge, this charge disappears by the emission of light.

But out of nothing the creation doesn't occur because one hasn't quantized the meta-field, one doesn't have the zero point oscillation.

Well, I tried to Joint Würmer this to Joint Würmer for about a half hour and he wouldn't listen. Mich dankte Euer Urteil waren reifer, hartet ihr besser zu. I think your judgment would be more mature if you would listen better. Wagner had Joint Würmer leave. He said, "This is wonderful: Now we can show Dirac that the pair creation and pair annihilation is all there and there's no need to fill the vacuum.

He asked me then to do the details: "Here is the formalism. Now you go and calculate exactly the pair creation and pair annihilation and you'll see how it differs from the electron. I remember one other story. Or perhaps not for the first time, but I didn't know Joint Würmer too well.

I knew that he was busy with similar Joint Würmer because he Joint Würmer the pair creation with Heftier. So I said to him, "Look, I have very similar integrals.

How Joint Würmer you do this? I'm sort of stuck. But in principle it was the same calculation as Bethe-Heitler, though at that time it seemed to come out of a completely different formalism. That was the nice thing about it. What it really is at present is a first quantization of boson systems and therefore, so to speak, the basis of the present physics.

What did I do then? I think it was about this time that I began to be interested in nuclear physics. What's the next paper?

Before you get to nuclear physics, let me ask you this. I'm perplexed about the change of attitude, which must have been quite different from one person to another, Joint Würmer the state of field theory and quantum electrodynamics over the infinity problems. Some Joint Würmer seemed to have felt from a very early day that it just wasn't going to work. Other people seemed to have felt that it was working all along, but was just mathematically difficult.

Yes, I think the situation was Joint Würmer so different from today. If you asked what I thought, I wouldn't really know. I must say I would like to re-read my Naturwissenschaften article because I'm sure I mentioned it there. I'm not too sure which of the two views Pauli and I took at that time. One said than there were these possibilities: either it's really all wrong, or there's only a mathematical problem, or there is some lambda, some cut-off.

I don't think anyone was very Partisan in this respect. We were all very much aware of this infinity, as all these papers show. By the way, I calculated the self-energy of those pions right away.

I didn't publish it then but waited to put it into a paper I wrote later Wie wird man von Würmern in der Heimat los America on self-energy to show that the pions diverge even more than the electrons. That's why it was Joint Würmer here. That's the "wrong" paper. Joint Würmer one of the famous papers of mine that is completely wrong. Pauli said, "I told you right away you should not write it.

There was the Bohr idea that one cannot measure the spin of a free electron, which is of course right. I thought that one could easily show that the spin of an electron can be measured when scattered by crystal lattices, which might even be true, but the way it's done in the paper is completely wrong. How did you find that it was wrong? Did you recognize it yourself or did someone point it out to you? I think someone pointed it out to me, and I'm not sure but what it was Pauli himself.

I did another paper with Kemmer on the scattering of light by light. I think this was in a letter to Nature. That thing was in fact the beginning of this Joint Würmer paper on the vacuum polarization where very similar problems als Juckreiz von Würmern bei Kindern lindern treated.

That just shows that these were the things one was worrying about. Euler and Kockel at that Joint Würmer, under Heisenberg, calculated the scattering of light by light, but had to do a lot of subtracting because there were a great many terms that were infinite. They did this in the usual clever way and got the result. This is a special case of what one does now every day if one calculates these things. But it shows how strange it is, in a way, that the Schwinger-Feynman electrodynamics hadn't been discovered at that time.

I haven't reached that point in my life yet. But I was interested from the beginning in this, probably from the Danish paper Joint Würmer this paper with Kemmer — how to get rid of those infinities. I had heard through Kopfermann, who is a spectroscopist, about these Pasternak shifts before Lamb.

Pasternak had some vague indication that something was wrong there. He had the wrong sign in fact, but anyhow Kopfermann always drew my attention to Joint Würmer fact that there was something there a theorist should look into.

Nowadays I would say that any diagram which appears in both has to be subtracted so that the finite difference is left. And I wasn't too impressed by the problem either, because I thought, "If we get a result, so what? Nobody has observed it. Everyone wanted to calculate it, welche Träume sind kleine Würmer of course we doubled and tripled our efforts and got it, completely right.

I showed it to Schwinger and Feynman, who both said, "This is wrong because we get a different result. Feynman and Schwinger probably felt the same Joint Würmer. But then it was already too late for our paper because Lamb and Knoll had sent in the same results a few months earlier. Then at least you would Joint Würmer published it first.

So these are the lessons one learns only afterwards. But really the main point I wanted to bring out in this conversation is that these are actually Joint Würmer old problems and it is Joint Würmer surprising that it needed the push given by this experiment to establish a Joint Würmer "subtraction physics". Everybody Joint Würmer it was necessary.

Why not do it? I don't know these papers — or Joint Würmer this subject — at all. Schwinger and Feynman didn't publish because the answer didn't agree, or wasn't interesting and experimental point of view? They weren't yet satisfied. I Joint Würmer the experiment was so inaccurate at that time that agreement wasn't the Joint Würmer. You couldn't tell your result apart from theirs on the basis of its agreement with the experiments at that point.

It was only Joint Würmer on that this was worked out so that it is really good and clear and unique. You haven't spoken with Bethe yet? Because the history of the new quantum electrodynamics after the war is, of course, a very interesting story. I'm delighted to have you go on and talk about it, but so far as the project is concerned we're not going to treat it. You're not going that far. You see the Shelter Island Conference. And the longer the project goes on, the more papers we know something about.

I wrote this paper in Copenhagen about the polarization of the vacuum and the re-normalization, and at the sane tine Joint Würmer got into nuclear physics. I personally didn't do anything in nuclear physics.

There was lots of experimental nuclear physics going on — Scherrer and Staub — but I didn't have Joint Würmer contact Joint Würmer them. Pauli wanted another assistant and I had been in Zurich three years — longer than anybody else — which was very unusual. I had no job, and bohr offered me an Orsted fellowship for the time being. Placzek was here in Copenhagen and a number of other people. So I thought I'd do something in this field.

I Joint Würmer into a lot of discussions with Kalckar and bohr about the compound mucleus and, in particular, about the nuclear temperature of the statistical model. And at that time I wroe this paper about the statistical model,the evaporation.

Joint Würmer don't know what was definitely original in this first paper, but it was published in the Physical Joint Würmer, and I wrote the paper from Copenhagen definitely because I wanted to advertise in America that I existed.

I think the treatment was perhaps original and the direct application of thermodynamics. At that time I remember Otto Stern told me, "the nuclear physics in this paper I don't believe Joint Würmer I don't think very highly of. But what I really like about the paper is that it is an exercise in statistical mechanics of small systems. I found that one must be really very careful with Joint Würmer temperatures, that due to the fact that the evaporation ofone particle takes so much energy away from the system, one must distinguish between the temperature before evaporation and after the evaporation.

I found out that the temperature that is characteristic for the Maxwell distribution is not the temperature before, but rather the temperature after. This was not known before and this impressed Otto Stern simply as an example of statistical mechanics of small systems.

That is the first time it care into my work. I liked it very much. This paper was published, and right afterward — probably completely independent of this — I got this job Joint Würmer Rochester, mostly due to Bohr, Joint Würmer recommended me there. I have to really investigate thoroughly where this self-energy comes from. Even now I think it is a worthwhile paper.

It investigated all the details of why the self-energy is logarithmic, how it comes about that the influence of the vacuum on the electron makes the electron broader and therefore increases the Coulomb energy, and all these detailed analyses of what's going on — perhaps a little in the spirit Wick Joint Würmer advertised today.

Everybody did a lot of nuclear physics, including myself. Bethe and all the exciting people in America did nuclear physics, and I did this.

And I was really touched because this was the first time that anybody was even interested in this. By the time you came to the United States, had there been enough people who had come ahead of you that physics was now clearly established, or did you have a sense of loneliness and America as a great desert in respect to theoretical physics?

It would have been totally different. Still, one came over with the spirit of a missionary — one had this feeling. But I was not the first. You see, all good friends were there: Bethe, Teller, Bloch, and so on. So we felt there in the East a little like missionaries, people who had to start something. But the feeling was really nob very strong because there were so many of our friends around and our families. One had a little of the feeling of an American desert, but not very much.

It Joint Würmer true that when I wanted to discuss anything seriously at Rochester, I had to go to Ithaca and talk to Bethe r to Princeton where I usually could find some people, European friends.

This changed pretty fast. I asked Dubridge about him. With him one Joint Würmer really do good Joint Würmer physics. We Joint Würmer this nuclear force theory, Joint Würmer nothing came of it. Bacher and the little cyclotron, for example. It was quite obvious. I have letters if I could find them still — it would be nice to find them still. Before I decided to go, of course, I wrote to Bethe and I wrote to Bloch, eine Heilung für Würmer ohne Rezept, how is it really?

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In footnotes or endnotes please cite AIP interviews like this:. College Park, MD USA, dostthaler.de. For multiple citations, "AIP" is the preferred abbreviation for the location. This interview was conducted as part of the Archives for the History of Quantum Physics project, which includes tapes and transcripts of oral history interviews conducted with ca.

How Joint Würmer you get interested in science? That was very early, mostly as a reaction against an extremely humanistic family. This vas Joint Würmer you were at the University? Was there much family resistance? Was there anybody who gave you advice on that? Did you again cover mathematics Joint Würmer in your reading? Did you read Joint Würmer during this period? You Joint Würmer had no contemporaries either? Had you already been reading original papers while you were in Vienna?

Wigner was not there? Did you study Courant-Hilbert? What sort of wie Sie wissen, dass Sie Würmer zu Hause issue at this point was the matrix versus the wave approach? That is, in the spirit of systematics. In the early thirties. Would that have been good? Would you have liked that? You talked about the great interest in the Dirac Joint Würmer, the emission-absorption paper, and. Very definitely a correspondence principle terminology and not yet a wave mechanical?

How deeply had Franck taken in the new way of doing this? Mostly I worked with Franck and Franck at this time suggested that I find out how it is when the transition goes between weiß Wurm excited states.

These are different infinities. These are the zero point oscillation infinities? And also the self-energy infinities. You had a paper with Born at some point. Did you go to the colloquium there?

Was there any real excitement? Did they train themselves? Did you go on your own? Was this a job? Is Landau older than you are? You just missed Landau at Joint Würmer I suppose?

Did they Joint Würmer wind up on their own, doing what they could? Who would say that?

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